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®Jj? lutwrattg of Minn? anta 

STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES NUMBER 6 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 
AN ANTHROMETRIC STUDY 

BY 

ALBERT ERNEST JENKS, Ph.D. 
Professor of Anthropology in the University of Minnesota 




MINNEAPOLIS 
Bulletin of the University of Minnesota 
March 1916 



Copyright 1916 
The University of Minnesota 




APR -3 1916 

©GIA428356 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface - - - -v 

Face breadth - 1 

Historical sketch of amalgamation 2 

The Warren family - 3 

French and Scotch mixed-blood families ------ 4 

Physical characteristics of pure-blood Indians - 5 

Physical characteristics of mixed-blood Indians ----- 7 

Face-breadth head-breadth index of American Indians (general) - 7 

Face-breadth head-breadth index of Lake Superior Ojibwa - - 10 

Face-breadth head-breadth index of Minnesota French men - - 13 

Face-breadth head-breadth index of Minnesota Scotch men - - 15 

Face-breadth head-breadth index of Lake Superior mixed-blood Indians 1 7 

Conclusion - -- -- -- -- -- 23 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Plate 

Izola Warren (Mrs. George Wah-we-ay-cumig) ----- A- 

Pure-blood Indian, man and woman ------ B 

Pure-blood French man and Scotch man - - - - - C 

Typical mixed-blood Indian men ------ - D 

Typical "half-breed" men - - - - - - - - W 

Graphs (Fig. 1, Head breadth; Fig. 2, Face breadth; Fig. 3, Face- 
breadth head-breadth index) - F 



PREFACE 



The Congress of the United States passed an act June 21, 1906, 
amended March 1, 1907, authorizing mixed-blood Indians on White 
Earth Reservation, Minnesota, to sell the lands which the Government 
had previously allotted to them. Many Indians enrolled on that reserva- 
tion have, as mixed-bloods, sold all or part of their allotments since the 
passage of the act. 

In time the Government suspected that in the sale of certain lands 
fraud had been committed intentionally by the original purchaser or 
seller, or both. Through its Department of Justice the Government in 
August, 1910, began to bring suits against the present owners of more 
than 1300 pieces of such land, — whether or not the present owners were 
the original purchasers. 

Both the Government and the defendants in these suits spent much 
time trying to ascertain the facts as to the blood status of the original 
Indians who sold as mixed-bloods. The method followed was to take 
Indian testimony, wherever available, covering the physical appearance, 
geneologies, and family reputation as to geneologies and blood status of 
the original sellers. It was soon discovered that information so gathered 
was not very trustworthy. 

The defendants then sought to determine the blood status by anthro- 
pometric methods. In October, 1914, the writer was called upon for an 
opinion by Mr. R. J. Powell, attorney for the defendants. I first 
visited Indians on the White Earth Reservation near the end of November, 
1914. The holiday recess of 1914-1915 was spent among the Bois Fort 
Indians at Pelican Lake and Nett Lake Reservation, Minnesota. Much 
of the summer of 1915, and all of the first semester of the academic year 
of 1915-1916 have been given to the studies in hand. In this investiga- 
tion I have visited, besides those bands of Indians already named, bands 
on the following reservations: Red Lake, Mille Lacs, Cass Lake, Leech 
Lake, Lake Winnibegoshish, and Bowstring Lake, — all in Minnesota, and 
most of which have been visited several times. Turtle Mountain Reser- 
vation, North Dakota, was also visited. All individuals studied were 
measured as to head breadth and length, face breadth and height, nasal 
breadth and length, color of eye, skin and hair, texture and quantity of 
hair, and nature of incisors. Detailed examination of the hair could not 
be made in the field. It is being prosecuted at the present time. 

The accompanying paper embodies the first published results of this 
study in an effort to determine the blood status of certain persons whose 



vi 



PREFACE 



ancestry is in question in the government suits. Only two of the several 
measurements made are presented in this paper, namely, that of breadth 
of face as measured from side to side through the zygomatic arches, and 
that of breadth of head as measured from side to side through the widest 
diameter of the parietals. In particular a relationship between these two 
measurements is presented; it is named the "face-breadth head-breadth 
index." This index is obtained by multiplying the actual breadth of the 
face in millimeters by one hundred, and dividing the product by the 
actual breadth of the head in millimeters. 

Albert Ernest Jenks 

January 22, 1916. 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



Among the hereditary physical factors of Indians and whites which 
are inherited in the mixed-blood offspring of the two peoples are the fol- 
lowing: skin color; eye color; hair color and texture; percentage of hairi- 
ness of the body, including beard growth; shape of the incisors; length 
and breadth of nose, and form of the nasal orifices; length, breadth, and 
height of the head, and also of the face. These are modified independ- 
ently probably, and some of them probably in relation to one another. 

In the present paper attention is called to a factor so constantly 
modified that it appears to be fully as determinative as any of the above. 
It is the relation of the breadth of the face to the breadth of the head, 
which will be called the face-breadth head-breadth index. 

FACE BREADTH 

Even casual observers have noticed the broad face of the Indian; 
no popular description of the Indian is complete without a mention of 
his "high cheek bones." Studies of physical measurements of the Indians 
have recorded the broad faces of many tribes of American aborigines, 
such as the studies of Boas, 1 Starr, 2 Hrdlicka, 3 and others. Boas called 
attention to the relatively broader faces of the pure-blood Indians than 
of the mixed-bloods, and of the relatively broader faces of the mixed- 
bloods than of the whites, but the relation of breadth of face to breadth 
of head was not mentioned. Among 3018 pure-blood Indian men, Boas 
found the narrowest face was 132 millimeters. Whereas he found among 
217 white men faces as narrow as 120 millimeters, and among 594 mixed- 
bloods the narrowest face was 126 millimeters, or about midway between 
the measurement of the narrowest Indian and the narrowest white. Again, 
among his 3018 pure-blood Indians he found faces 169 millimeters broad, 
but among the 217 white men he found none broader than 163 milli- 
meters; among the 594 mixed-blood men were faces 165 millimeters broad. 
Boas' frequency curve shows the ' 'typical" pure-blood Indian has a facial 
breadth of from 150 to 151 millimeters. The typical mixed-blood 
Indian has a facial breadth of from 148 to 149 millimeters, with a much 
larger secondary type ranging from 143 to 145 millimeters. His "typical" 
white man has a facial breadth of 140 to 141 millimeters. Thus the 

1 Franz Boas, "Zur Anthropologic der nord-amerikanischen Indianer," in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 
1895, pp. 366-411. 

* Frederick Starr, "Physical Characters of Indians of Southern Mexico," in Decennial Publications of 
the University of Chicago, 1st series, 4:51-109 (1903). 

8 Ales Hrdlifika, "Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southern United 
States and Northern Mexico," as Bulletin 34, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1908. 



2 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



relative breadth of face of the pure-blood Indian, pure-blood white, and 
Indian- white mixed-blood was clearly noted and demonstrated by Boas 
in 1895. His complete table of data follows: 

TABLE I 



Face Breadth of Men, from Boas 4 



\ T i 1 1 1 *"n *i + p r c 

-MliiJ-lilC LCI d 


^018 Tnrlianc 


594 inixcci^bloocLs 


217 whites 




per C6irt 


fipr ppnt 


120-121 






0. 3 


122-123 






0. 5 


124-125 






0. 6 


126-127 




6. 2 


0. 5 


128-129 






0.8 


130-131 




0. 3 


3. 2 


132-133 


6. i 


1. 5 


4. 0 


134-135 


0. 3 


1. 3 


4. 9 


136-137 


1. 0 


3 4 


10. 3 


138-139 


1.6 


6.7 


10^3 


140-141 


3.4 


9.6 


15.6 


142-143 


6. 1 


12.6 


14. 1 


144-145 


8.9 


12.8 


10.0 


146-147 


12.8 


11.6 


10.8 


148-149 


13.7 


14. 1 


6.3 


150-151 


15. 1 


10.6 


2.5 


152-153 


12.0 


8.2 


1.2 


154-155 


9. 1 


2.9 


1.4 


156-157 


7.0 


1.7 


0.5 


158-159 


4.6 


1.7 


0.5 


160-161 


2.3 


0.3 


0.6 


162-163 


1.0 


0.2 


0.3 


164-165 


0.6 


0.2 




166-167 


0. 1 






168-169 


0. 1 







HISTORICAL SKETCH OF AMALGAMATION 

During the past year I have examined some more than three hundred 
Ojibwa Indians, mainly in Minnesota, in a deliberate effort to ascertain 
whether the different individuals are pure-blood Indians, or mixed- 
bloods — as, Indian-white, Indian-negro, or Indian-negro-white mixed- 
bloods. It was soon discovered that the pure-blood Indian type was 
noticeable chiefly by its absence. Let me suggest the historical founda- 
tion for such a condition. Mr. W. W. Warren in his excellent study of 
his own people (Warren was a mixed-blood Ojibwa) tells us that the 
Ojibwa Indians first became acquainted with the white man about the 

* Table xvn, p. 405 of "Zur Anthropologic der nord-amerikanischen Indianer," in Zeitschrift fiir 
Ethnologic 1895, pp. 366-411. 



Plate A 




Photo by Jenks 

Izola Warren (Mrs. George Wah-we-ay-cumig) on the left; 
her mother on the right 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



3 



year 1612. B In 1618 Stephen Brule, one of Champlain's reckless and enter- 
prising voyageurs, brought to Quebec a description of Lake Superior, as 
well as a specimen of native copper. 6 In 1634, Jean Nicolet became 
acquainted with the Ojibwa near Sault Ste. Marie. In a letter dated 
Quebec, September 21, 1654, Father Le Mercier speaks of a flotilla of 
canoes loaded with furs guided by French traders but manned by Indians 
from four hundred leagues to the west. From the year 1660, largely 
due to the explorations and trading successes of the two Frenchmen, 
Radisson and Groseilliers, the Lake Superior Ojibwa have been exploited 
for their rich catches of fur. No anthropologist making a first-hand 
study of the Ojibwa Indians to-day will long doubt that from the date 
last mentioned, or for the past two hundred and fifty years, the amalga- 
mation of the Indians and whites has been continuous and cumulative in 
the Lake Superior region. In 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company was 
organized and for two hundred years dominated the upper Ojibwa area. 
It early entered the field of the Minnesota Ojibwa with its force of hardy 
French and Scotch traders. In 1787, the Northwest Company of Montreal 
was formed. The American Trading Company was started in 1809. 
The thousands of traders from the above large companies, and many 
others from smaller and from private trading organizations, were sta- 
tioned in or roamed over the lands of the Lake Superior Indians. To-day 
their lineal descendents are traders in or near every Indian village through- 
out that extensive lake area. It was the rare and exceptional trader who 
did not have at least one Indian wife. 

THE WARREN FAMILY 

Let us briefly review the amalgamation process as illustrated in the 
famous Warren family which to-day has descendents well scattered over 
the reservations of the Lake Superior region, as well as some who are 
successful professional men in the largest cities of our Northwest. Richard 
Warren was a "Mayflower" pilgrim from Great Britain in 1620. A 
descendent, Abraham Warren, born in 1747, was the father of Lyman 
Warren, born in Hartford, Connecticut, 1771. Lyman Warren's son, 
Lyman Marquis Warren, born in 1794, came to Lake Superior in 1818. 
In 1821, Lyman Marquis Warren married Mary Cadotte, who was said 
at that time to be three-fourths Indian. The Cadotte family is descended 
from M. Cadeau, who is said to have come to the Ojibwa country in 1671 
in the train of the French envoy, Simon-Francis Daumont, Sieur de St. 
Lusson. The son of this original Cadeau (without doubt by an Ojibwa 
woman) was John Baptiste Cadotte. This John Baptiste Cadotte married 

6 W. W. Warren, History of the Ojibways, Based upon Tradition and Oral Statements, as Volume V of 
Minnesota Historical Society Collections, 90. 
6 Op. cit., pp. 399-400. 



4 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



an Ojibwa woman named A-waus-e-clan. They had two children named 
John Baptiste, Jr., and Michel. Both of these Cadotte brothers married 
Ojibwa women, — Michel Cadotte being the father of Mary, who in 1821 
became the wife of Lyman Marquis Warren. To this couple six children 
were born who reached maturity, among them being William Whipple 
Warren, born in 1825, the author of the study, History of the Ojibways, 
(see footnote, page 3). He was a member of the Minnesota legislature 
in 1851, and died in 1853 at the early age of 28 years. In 1842 William 
Whipple Warren married Mary Matilda Aitkin, the daughter of the well- 
known white Indian trader William A. Aitkin and an Indian wife. Two 
children who reached maturity and married were born to Mr. and Mrs. 
William Whipple Warren. They were William Tyler Warren and Mrs. 
Madaline Uran, both of whom lived on White Earth Reservation. A 
daughter of William Tyler Warren by Nay-nah-cah-wub-e-quay, a woman 
of some white blood, was born in 1897. She is Izola, shown on the left 
in plate A with her mother. This picture was taken at their home at 
Twin Lakes on the White Earth Reservation, Mahnomen County, Minne- 
sota, July, 1915. Izola is about one-half white. In the early autumn 
of 1915 she was married to George Wah-we-ay-cumig, the son of Chief 
Wah-we-ay-cumig of the Elbow Lake band, also on White Earth Reser- 
vation. The mother of George Wah-we-ay-cumig shows unquestionable 
evidence of having white blood. George is probably about one-thirty- 
second white, so that the children which may be born to Mr. and Mrs. 
George Wah-we-ay-cumig will be about one-fourth white and three- 
fourths Ojibwa. Some other branches of the Warren family have bred 
out practically white. Some such members have left the reservations 
and after graduating from colleges and universities are successfully com- 
peting with other white men in high-grade professional work. Still other 
branches of the Warren family have bred into the Bonga family, — an 
extensive old Indian family with negro blood, only two members of the 
third generation of which are still living. Members of the fourth and 
fifth (and possibly the sixth) generation are numerous and scattered 
widely over Lake Superior reservations. 

The Warren family was selected to illustrate Ojibwa-white amalga- 
mation only because it was typical, and was historically well known. 
A score of other families might have been presented, some of which are 
equally well attested by historical data and many of which, like the 
Fairbanks and Beaulieu families, are probably more widely scattered. 

FRENCH AND SCOTCH MIXED-BLOOD FAMILIES 

The following lists of French and Scotch mixed-blood families on the 
White Earth Reservation are taken as typical of many others. They 
were printed by the United States Government in 1911, when it listed by 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



5 



name the 3357 Indians enrolled on that reservation. It will be noted 
that each list is taken from a single initial letter of the alphabet : 

TABLE II 

Certain Mixed- blood Families on White Earth Reservation 



French Patronymic Scotch Patronymic 



Beauchamp 


Bondreau 


McArthur 


McNiff 


Beaudreau 


Boucher 


McCauley 


Mason 


Beaulieu 


Branchaud 


McDonald 


Mayhew 


Beaupre 


Brisbois 


McDonnell 


Merrell 


Bellanger 


Brunette 


McDougall 


Melvin 


Bellecourt 




McGillis 


Miller 


Bellefeuille 




Mcintosh 


Monroe 


Benoist 




McKeig 


Moore 


Bibeau 




McKenzie 


Morrison 


Bisson 




McLean 


Mudgett 


Bottineau 




McMartin 


Murray 



With scarcely an exception the names listed above represent old and 
established families having collateral branches. Intermarriages among 
the various families have been so extensive that it is believed there 
is no mixed-blood family of three generations of adults on the White 
Earth Reservation which is not enmeshed by kinship with ninety per cent 
of the other mixed-blood families of equal or greater age. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PURE-BLOOD INDIANS 

In order to ascertain whether the different individuals on White Earth 
Reservation are pure-blood Indians or Indians of mixed blood it was 
desirable to establish the pure-blood Indian type, and also the pure-blood 
white types which have largely been the source of the white blood in the 
mixed families. The American Indian type is well known to scientific 
students of primitive people. The patent physical characteristics are as 
follows : 

Skin. Dark skin color, ranging from lighter yellowish brown in areas 
humid or high to darker chocolate brown in drier or lower areas. The 
brown skin color of the Indians in the United States whom I have seen 
has also noticeably more of the red and less of the yellow tint than the 
various brown-skinned Malayan peoples I am familiar with. Dr. Hrdlicka 
says the skin on the back of the hands of aged Indians appears to wrinkle 
more and the skin on the back of the neck to wrinkle less than that of 
white persons living under similar conditions; my observations tend to 
confirm those of Hrdlicka. 

Hair. The head hair is black, straight and coarse in texture, and 
grows long, lank, and not abundantly. With extreme age (as 70, 80, or 
90 years) the hair may turn somewhat gray — usually yellowish gray, but 



5 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



not pure white. The hair may also thin on the crown, but well-defined 
areas of baldness do not occur. The body is only scantily covered with 
hair, except in the pelvic and axilla areas. The beard growth is thin 
and scraggly, never covering the surface of the skin on which it grows. 
It is most abundant on the upper lip and chin, but is particularly absent 
on the sides of the face, and the hairs seldom or never grow more than 
three inches long, even on the chin. 

Face. The face is angular and rugged, the upper part usually retreat- 
ing over a low and broad, rather than a high and narrow, forehead. It is 
wide between the zygomatic arches, while the lower part (from chin to 
nasion) is high, and cut across by an unusually long mouth opening. The 
entire face becomes a net-work of deep wrinkles in old age. 

Eyes. The iris of the eye is always brown, either dark brown or very 
dark brown. It is never light brown, and even in the aged is possibly 
never as light as medium brown in healthy eyes. There is almost a 
universal disappearance of melanin pigment from the outer rim of the iris 
of the aged until the brown iris becomes encircled with a band of blue. 
The sclerotic coat has a slight tendency to exhibit yellow granules — a 
tendency more than the white man and less than the negro. The Mon- 
golian fold is frequently seen in children, but seldom does it persist in the 
eyes of adults. 

Teeth. Certain teeth are concave on the posterior or inner surface. 
This concavity is most noticeable in the upper central incisors, though it 
occurs in the lateral upper, and also in a less extreme manner in the lower 
incisors. In some individuals it is present in the cuspids also. 

Head. The Indian has no distinguishing or typical head-form. Some 
tribes have the predominant form called dolichocephalic, others brachyce- 
phalic, and others mesocephalic. 

Nose. In spite of the eagle-beak nose famous in literature as Indian, 
there is no typically Indian form about Indian noses, except that they 
are coarse — crudely moulded rather than finely chiseled. All types are 
found, as concave, concavo-convex, and convex — as Roman and aquiline. 

Hands and feet. The Indian has the slight, delicate hands and feet 
of people who do little hard manual labor. Their hands are of the so- 
called aristocratic type; while their feet are shorter, rather than narrower, 
than those of the white and negro peoples. 

Other patent physical characteristics. There is nothing characteristic 
in the stature of the Indian. The women during their prime carry much 
more adipose tissue than do American white women; they are large, 
strong, and well-nourished, and are never gaunt and slender. 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



7 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED-BLOOD INDIANS 

All of the above characteristics tend to become modified in the off- 
spring of the Indian and white amalgamating stocks. The skin tends to 
become lighter colored; this is especially noticeable in areas relatively 
unaffected by climatic conditions, as under the clothing. The difference 
in skin color is well shown in the faces in plate A. The body becomes 
hairier; the beard growth increases in quantity and length — as all three 
faces in plate^E illustrate. The head-hair becomes lighter in color, finer, 
softer, and more abundant; often it is wavy — as figure 2 in plate E 
well shows. It becomes gray earlier in life, not infrequently it is 
white, and the head often exhibits typical baldness — as figures 2 and 3 
in plate D suggest. The face tends to smoothness and to uprightness at 
the expense of the larger lower part. It tends to become narrower — 
both absolutely and in relation to the breadth of the head. The iris of 
the eye lightens, frequently exhibiting the light brown shade, the still 
lighter hazel, and even the gray and the blue. The concavity of the teeth 
gradually disappears and the increasing tendency to caries is most 
persistent. The hands and feet get larger, especially broader and coarser. 
A slender figure is frequently developed, especially in the women. The 
tendency is for the individual to assume the physical characteristics of 
either of the two parent stocks in direct ratio with the preponderating 
inheritable influence of that stock over the other parent stock. In 
general, therefore, a hybrid individual of three-fourths Indian and one- 
fourth white blood will bear measurable physical characteristics more 
like the Indian parent than the white, and a hybrid individual of three- 
fourths white and one-fourth Indian blood will bear measurable physical 
characteristics more like the white parent than the Indian. 

FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH INDEX OF AMERICAN 
INDIANS IN GENERAL 

The earliest measurements of Indian face breadth and head breadth 
available to me at this time are the skeletal measurements made by 
Samuel George Morton, published in 1839 in his monumental work, Crania 
Americana.' 1 His measurements were made in inches rather than milli- 
meters. I present below, a face-breadth head-breadth index of 95.49 
per cent derived from his table of "Mean Results" given on page 259. 
Morton there summarizes the mean head-breadth measurements of 147 
skulls of the * 'American [Indian] race" and the mean face-breadth 
measurement of 113 of the same skulls, as follows: 



7 Samuel George Morton, Crania Americana, or A Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal 
Nations of North and South America, 296 pp. (Philadelphia and London, 1839.) 



8 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE III 



Face-breadth Head-breadth Index of "American [Indian] Race" 
Derived from Morton 



Number of skulls 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


Face-breadth 
head-breadth 
index 


inches 


millimeters 


inches 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


147 
113 


5.55 


140.97 


5.3 


134.62 


} 6.35 


95.49 



Dr. Morton also presented the head-breadth measurements of fourteen 
skulls of Great Lakes Algonquin (including Ojibwa and their near tribal 
kin) and the face-breadth measurements of twelve of the same skulls, 
from which I derive the average face-breadth head-breadth index of 
96.06 per cent, as follows: 



TABLE IV 

Face-breadth Head-breadth Index of Great Lakes Algonquin Skulls 

Derived from Morton 



Tribe 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


Face-breadth 
head-breadth 
index 


inches 


millimeters 


inches 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


Sauk 


5.9 


149.86 


5.6 


142.24 


7.62 


94.91 


Fox 


5.9 


149.86 


5.8 


147.30 


2.54 


98.29 


Fox 


5.9 


149.86 


5.4 


137. 16 


12.49 


91.52 




5.7 


144. 78 


5.2 


132.08 


12.49 


91.21 


Ojibwa 


5.8 


147.30 


5.5 


139. 70 


7.62 


94.84 




5.5 


139. 70 


5.5 


139.70 


0.00 


100.00 


Menomini 


5.6 


142.24 


5.4 


137. 16 


5.08 


96.43 




5.4 


137. 16 


5.4 


137. 16 


0.00 


100.00 




5.7 


144. 78 


5.6 


142.24 


2.54 


98.24 


Menomini 


5.6 


142.24 


5.2 


132.08 


10.16 


92.85 


Menomini 


5.8 


147.30 


5.8 


147.30 


0.00 


100.00 




5.7 


144. 78 










Menomini 


5.6 
5.4 


142. 24 
137. 16 


'5.1 




| 




Menomini 


129.54 


7.62 


94.44 



Average face-breadth head-breadth index, 96. 06. 



In 1903 Professor Frederick Starr published his physical measure- 
ments of one hundred Mexican Indian men and twenty-five women from 
each of twenty- three tribes. 8 I have produced a table giving a differential 



8 Frederick Starr, "Physical Characters of Indians of Southern Mexico," in Decennial Publications 
of the University of Chicago, 1st series 4:51-109 (1903). 



INDIA N- WHITE A MA LGA MA TION 



9 



and a face-breadth head-breadth index based upon his mean measure- 
ments of face breadth and head breadth for each of the twenty-three 
tribes, as follows: 

TABLE V 



Face-breadth Head-breadth Index of Indian Tribes of Southern Mexico 

Derived from Starr 





2300 Men 


575 Women 










Face- 








Face- 


Tribe 


Mean 


Mean 




breadth 


Mean 


Mean 




breadth, 


head 


face 


Differ- 


head- 


head 


face 


Differ- 


head- 




breadth 


breadth 


ential 


breadth 


breadth 


breadth 


ential 


breadth 










index 








index 




mm. 


mm. 


mm. 


per cent 


mm. 


mm. 


.... 
mm. 


per cent 




147.2 


140.7 


6.5 


95.5 


144.6 


135. 1 


9.5 


93.4 




146.5 


139. 1 


7.4 


94.9 


142.2 


133.7 


8.5 


94.0 




149. 1 


140. 1 


9. 0 


93. 2 


143. 5 


130. 5 


13. 0 


90. 9 




146.5 


138. 1 


8.4 


94.2 


142.8 


131.9 


10.9 


92.3 




149.4 


142.5 


6.9 


95.3 


143.9 


135.7 


8.2 


94.2 


fS Tfininc 


147.5 


140. 6 


6.9 


95.3 


142.0 


132.5 


9.5 


93.3 




148.7 


141.0 


7.7 


94.8 


144.3 


134.8 


9.5 


93.4 


8. Mixes 


150. 7 


143.5 


7.2 


95. 1 


142.9 


133.3 


9.6 


93.2 


9. Zapotecs 


150.2 


142.4 


7.8 


94.8 


145.6 


136.0 


9.6 


93.4 


(Tehuantepecanos) 




















153. 1 


145.0 


8. 1 


94. 7 


148.2 


137.4 


10.8 


92.7 


11. Chontals 


149.9 


141. 7 


8.2 


94.5 


144.5 


137.5 


7.0 


95. 1 


12. Cuicatecs 


147.6 


139. 1 


8.5 


94.2 


141.0 


131.0 


10.0 


92.9 


13. Chinantecs 


151.9 


145.0 


6.9 


95.4 


146.0 


135.9 


10. 1 


93.0 


14. Chocos 


151.0 


144.0 


7.0 


95.3 


147.0 


136.0 


11.0 


92.5 


15. Mazatecs 


150.9 


142. 1 


8.8 


94. 1 


147.0 


136.0 


11.0 


92.5 




151.2 


142. 1 


9. 1 


93.9 


148.0 


138.2 


9.8 


93.3 




153.8 


145.3 


8.5 


94.4 


149.8 


138. 1 


11.7 


92. 1 




150. 1 


141.9 


8. 2 


94.4 


145.8 


134. 2 


11.6 


92.0 


19. Mayas 


154. 1 


144.2 


9.9 


93.5 


148. 7 


136.9 


11.8 


92.0 




146. 2 


139. 5 


6.7 


95.4 


143. 1 


138.0 


5. 1 


96.5 


21. Tzotzils 


144. 6 


140.9 


3.7 


97.4 


138.8 


132.7 


6. 1 


95.6 


22. Tzendals 


144. 1 


140.8 


3.3 


97.7 


137.0 


131. 1 


5.9 


95.6 


23. Chols 


147.5 


141.2 


6.3 


95.7 


141.6 


130.2 


11.4 


91.9 



Average face-breadth head-breadth index of the 2300 men, 94. 9. 
Average face-breadth head-breadth index of the 575 women, 93. 3. 



In 1908 Dr. Ales Hrdlicka published face-breadth and head-breadth 
measurements of Apache and Pima men and women. It is from his data 
of said tribes that the following table is prepared, showing differential 
and face-breadth head-breadth index: 9 



9 Ales Hrdlicka, "Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwestern 
United States and Northern Mexico." Bulletin 34, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1908. 



10 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE VI 

Face-breadth Head-breadth Index of Apache and Pima Indians 
Derived from Hrdlicka 



Tribe 



Number 



Head breadth 



millimeters 



Face breadth 



millimeters 



Differential 



millimeters 



Face-breadth 
head-breadth 
index 



per cent 



Apache men. . . 
Apache women 

Pima men 

Pima women . . 



148 
174 

41 
51 

51 

53 

30 



158 
155 
147 
144 



149 

141 

145 
138 



9 
U 



94.30 

90.96 

98.63 
95.83 



The lowest face-breadth, head-breadth index shown in any of the 
averages for men in the above four tables is 93 . 20 for one of the tribes of 
Mexico. It is impossible to know the per cent of Indian blood possessed 
by the individuals whose measurements are recorded in said tables. Since 
the Mexican people are an hybrid group of Indian-whites produced during 
the slightly less than four hundred years since Cortez's conquest, and 
since the white man has penetrated everywhere in Mexico, it is undoubt- 
edly true that the tribes of Indians measured by Starr in southern Mexico 
have more or less white blood. The Pima are probably the purest 
Indians whose measurements we have. The United States Census for 
1910 states that the tribe has 0.4 per cent of mixed-blood, or 19 indi- 
viduals out of a total of 4236. From Dr. Hrdlicka's measurements I de- 
rive the average face-breadth head-breadth index of 98 . 63 per cent for 
51 Pima men, and of 95.83 per cent for 30 Pima women. 

FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH INDEX OF LAKE SUPERIOR OJIBWA 

The following tables are of measurements of adult individuals from 
my own data. 

The head-breadth face-breadth differential (i.e. actual difference 
between head breadth and face breadth), and the face-breadth head- 
breadth index (i.e. the percentage which the face breadth is of the head 
breadth) are shown for each person considered in this study. The differ- 
ential is relatively unimportant; it is of greatest value in the field because 
it can be computed at a glance, and one thereby obtains a suggestion of 
the face-breadth head-breadth index. The measurements of head breadth 
and face breadth were observed and recorded in half millimeters. The 



Plate B 






Photo by Jenks Photo by Jenks 

Figure 1 Figure 2 

Pure-blood Indian woman (blind) 

Head breadth ... - 153.5 mm. 
Face breadth .... 144.5 mm. 

Face-breadth head-breadth index - 94. 13 per cent 





Photo by Jenks 



Photo by Jenks 



Figure 3 



Figure 4 



Pure-blood Indian man 



Head breadth .... 156.0Tmm. 
Face breadth - - - 154.0 fmm. 

Face-breadth head-breadth index - 98 . 71.per cent 



Plate C 







■ i 








\ 

1 






f 



Figure 1 
Pure-blood French man 
Head breadth .... 149.5 mm. 
Face breadth .... 137.0 mm. 
Face-breadth head-breadth index - 91 .63 per cent 




Figure 2 
Pure-blood Scotch man 

Head breadth 158.0 mm. 

Face breadth 147.5 mm. 

Face-breadth head-breadth index - 93.35 percent 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



11 



average and the mean variation of each of the above named measurements 
(except the mean variation of the differential) are also given for each 
group of persons as shown in each table. The distributions of head 
breadth, face breadth, and face-breadth head-breadth index are also 
shown graphically on plate F, figures 1, 2, and 3, respectively. 

TABLE VII 

24 Pure-blood Indian Men 

Showing measurements of pure-blood Indians, and who are not identified as kin of 

known mixed-bioods 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


159.5 


156.0 


3.5 


97.80 


10Z. u 


101.0 


c 
. O 


OO f\l 


160.5 


152.0 


8.5 


94.70 


159.0 


152.5 


8.5 


95.28 


160.0 


156.5 


3.5 


97.81 


156.0 


154.0 


2.0 


98.71 


152.5 


148.0 


4.5 


97.08 


158.0 


149.0 


9.0 


94.30 


148.5 


151.5 


+3.0 


102.02 


155.5 


150.5 


5.0 


96.78 


157.5 


149.0 


8.5 


94.60 


152.5 


146.5 


6.0 


96.09 


156.0 


154.0 


2.0 


98.71 


161.0 


151.5 


9.5 


94.09 


161.0 


157.5 


3.5 


97.82 


161.5 


158.5 


3.0 


98.13 


159.5 


158.0 


1.5 


99.05 


154.5 


148.5 


6.0 


96.11 


156.0 


156.5 


+ .5 


100.30 


156.5 


152.0 


4.5 


97.12 


158.0 


152.0 


6.0 


96.20 


146.5 


144.0 


2.5 


98.29 


154.5 


149.0 


5.5 


96.37 


159.0 


151.5 


7.5 


95.28 


Av 156.5 


152.0 


4.4 


97.19 . 


M. Var.. 3.06 


2.87 




1.61 



Av.= Average; M. Var. = Mean variation. 



Table vn, immediately preceding, contains certain measurements of 
twenty-four adult males from Lake Superior reservations who in my 
judgment, from all the measurements obtained, appear to be typical 
pure-blood Indians. Although the table (like all the others in this article) 
shows only the measurements of head breadth and face breadth— from 
which the face-breadth head-breadth differential and face-breadth head- 
breadth index are derived — yet all individuals studied were measured, 



12 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



as was stated in the Preface, for head breadth and length, facial breadth 
and height, nasal breadth and length, color of eye, skin and hair, texture 
and quantity of hair, and nature of incisors. None of the twenty-four 
individuals show any evidence of being mixed-bloods except that among 
the men in table vn and the nineteen women, table viii, six show by the 
Bradley Color Top, a skin color test of less than 50 per cent pigment (or 
more than 50 per cent white). The six are two brothers and a sister 
who test 50.5, 53.0, and 51.0 per cent white, respectively; two others 
are sisters who test 51.0, and 54 . 0 per cent white; and another is a woman 
who tests 52.5 per cent white. It seems probable that some family 
tendency toward relatively lighter skin exists among the individuals just 
mentioned. This tendency to lighter skin may be due to a slight infusion 
of white blood, or to some purely Indian ancestors whose skins were 
lighter than the type, perhaps. 

TABLE VIII 
19 Pure-blood Indian Women 



Showing measurements of pure-blood Indians, and who are not identified as kin of 

known mixed bloods 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


DiSerential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


148.0 


139.5 


8.5 ■ 


94.25 


145.0 


139.5 


5.5 


96.20 


147.5 


142.0 


5.5 


96.94 


149.0 


141.0 


8.0 


94.65 


153.5 


144.5 


9.0 


94.13 


151.5 


143.5 


8.0 


94.71 


151.5 


147.5 


4.0 


97.35 


147.0 


142.0 


5.0 


96.79 


153.0 


152.0 


1.0 


99.34 


149.0 


145.0 


4.0 


97.31 


147.5 


145.0 


2.5 


98.30 


156.0 


148.5 


7.5 


95.19 


140.0 


134.5 


5.5 


96.07 


153.5 


148.5 


5.0 


96.74 


154.0 


145.5 


8.5 


94.48 


150.5 


145.0 


5.5 


96.35 


143.5 


137.0 


6.5 


95.47 


158.5 


151.5 


7.0 


95.58 


152.5 


145.0 


7.5 


95.08 


Av. 150.0 


144.0 


6.0 


96.05 


M. Var.. 3.58 


3.47 




1.20 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



13 



FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH INDEX OF 
MINNESOTA FRENCH MEN 

Table ix presents the measurements of one hundred French men, most 
of whom were born in Canada but now reside within thirty miles north of 
Minneapolis. Some of these are the first generation of Minnesota-born 
French. Seven were measured on or near Lake Superior reservations, 
and six were measured in Minneapolis. It is probable that a few have a 
slight infusion of Indian blood, since the French who have come from 
Canada to Minnesota are practically all from the area where the Pembina 
Half-breed Nation (French-Indian breeds) nourished during the palmy 
days of Red River trading posts. The table contains the first one hundred 
French men measured for this study. 

TABLE IX 



100 French Men 









Face-breadth 


xieaa Dreadtn 


Face breadth 


Differential 


nead- breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


160.0 


143. 5 


16. 5 


89.68 


151.5 


142.0 


8. 5 


93.72 


144. 5 


137.0 


7 5 


94. 80 


149^5 


140^5 


9.0 


93^31 


146.5 


135.0 


11.5 


92.15 


153.5 


135.0 


13.5 


87.94 


152.5 


138.0 


14.5 


90.49 


158.0 


147.0 


11.0 


93.03 


162.5 


147.5 


15.0 


92.76 


158.5 


136.0 


22.5 


85.80 


168.5 


150.0 


8.5 


89.02 


155.5 


149.5 


6.0 


96.14 


160.0 


147.5 


12.5 


92.18 


155.0 


139.5 


15.5 


90.00 


149.5 


141.5 


8.0 


94.64 


149.0 


136.5 


12.5 


91.61 


149.5 


135.0 


14.5 


90.30 


155.5 


144.5 


11.0 


92.92 


154.0 


138.5 


15.5 


89.93 


147.0 


138.0 


9.0 


93.87 


150.5 


137.0 


12.5 


91.03 


147.0 


150.0 


+3.0 


102.04 


152.5 


141.5 


11.0 


92.78 


154.0 


135.5 


18.5 


87.98 


148.5 


137.0 


11.5 


92.25 


158.0 


142.5 


15.5 


90.19 


155.0 


139.5 


15.5 


90.00 


152.5 


135.5 


17.0 


88.85 


153.0 


134.0 


19.0 


87.58 


151.5 


139.5 


13.0 


92.07 


150 0 


137.0 


13.0 


91.33 


150.0 


133.0 


17.0 


88.60 


158.5 


139.5 


19.0 


88.01 


158.0 


148.5 


9.5 


93.98 



14 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE IX — Continued 
100 French Men 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 
index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


156.0 


141.5 


14.5 


90.70 


154.0 


137.5 


16.5 


89.28 


164.0 


149.5 


14.5 


91.15 


154.5 


138.5 


16.0 


89.64 


157.5 


147.5 


10.0 


93.65 


160.0 


143.5 


16.5 


89.68 


161.5 


140.0 


21.5 


86.68 


145.0 


140.5 


4.5 


96.89 


158.5 


140.5 


18.5 


88.64 


152.5 


138.0 


14.5 


90.49 


158.0 


137.0 


21.0 


86.70 


151.5 


142.0 


9.5 


93.72 


155.5 


145.0 


10.5 


93.24 


151.5 


134.0 


17.5 


88.44 


160.0 


151.0 


9.0 


94.37 


148.0 


142.0 


6.0 


95.94 


150.0 


139.5 


10.5 


93.00 


150.0 


136.5 


18.5 


91.00 


157.0 


149.5 


17.5 


95.22 


145.0 


136.0 


9.0 


93.79 


150.5 


141.0 


8.5 


93.68 


162.0 


150.5 


11.5 


92.90 


156.5 


145.0 


11.5 


92.65 


159.0 


141.5 


17.5 


88.99 


149.0 


136.5 


12.5 


91.61 


149.5 


137.0 


12.5 


91.63 


161.5 


136.0 


25.5 


84.21 


151.5 


135.0 


16.5 


91.18 


143.0 


131.5 


11.5 


87.12 


148.0 


131.0 


19.0 


88.51 


141.5 


129.0 


12.5 


91.09 


163.5 


140.0 


23.5 


85.62 


156.5 


139.5 


17.0 


89.13 


161.0 


135.0 


26.0 


83.85 


147.5 


129.5 


18 0 


87.75 


149.5 


132.0 


17.5 


88.29 


157.5 


142.0 


15.5 


90.16 


151.0 


140.5 


10.5 


93.04 


153.5 


135.5 


18.0 


88.27 


149.0 


130.5 


18.5 


87.58 


145.5 


125.5 


20.0 


86.25 


150.0 


132.5 


17.5 


88.33 


155.0 


137.5 


17.5 


88.70 


154.0 


133.5 


20.5 


86.62 


157.0 


144.5 


13.5 


92.04 


150.5 


138.5 


12.0 


92.02 


152.5 


138.0 


14.5 


91.14 


150.0 


137.0 


13.0 


91.33 


165.0 


143.0 


22.0 


86.66 


161.0 


140.0 


21.0 


86.95 


151.0 


143.0 


8.0 


94.70 


147.0 


138.5 


8.5 


94.21 


146.0 


138.5 


7.5 


94.86 


150.5 


145.0 


5.5 


96.34 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



15 



TABLE IX — Continued 



100 French Men 









Face-breadth 




Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 










index 




millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


1 *>f\ A 
IOO. u 


1/11 £ 


14. 5 


90.76 




152.0 


137.5 


14.5 


90.46 




150.0 


142.0 


8.0 


94.66 




160.0 


143.0 


17.0 


89.37 




157.5 


144.5 


13.0 


91.74 




140.5 


129.0 


11.5 


91.91 




145.5 


134.0 


11.5 


92.09 




163.0 


142.0 


21.0 


90.93 




147.0 


128.5 


19.5 


87.41 




150.5 


139.5 


19.0 


92.69 




162.5 


135.5 


27.0 


83.38 




153.0 


133.5 


19.5 


87.25 




Av. 153.4 


139.2 


14.4 


90.85 




M. Var. 5.62 


4.22 




2.41 





Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH INDEX OF 
MINNESOTA SCOTCH MEN 

In table x the measurements of fifty Scotch men are recorded. Three- 
fourths of those men were born in Scotland. They were measured in 
Minneapolis as members of fraternal clan organizations. 

TABLE X 



50 Scotch Men 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 
index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


149.5 


135.0 


14.5 


90.30 


152.5 


139.0 


13.5 


91.14 


156.0 


141.5 


14.5 


90.70 


153.5 


131.5 


22.0 


85.66 


148.5 


139.0 


9.5 


93.60 


152.5 


136.0 


16.5 


89.18 


152.0 


138.0 


14.0 


90.78 


146.5 


131.0 


15.5 


89.42 


147.0 


138.5 


8.5 


94.21 


150.0 


136.0 


14.0 


90.66 


149.0 


139.5 


9.5 


93.62 


146.0 


134.5 


11.5 


92.12 


146.5 


134.5 


12.0 


91.80 


156.5 


142.5 


14.0 


91.05 


146.0 


141.5 


4.5 


96.91 


151.0 


142.5 ; 


8.5 


94.37 



16 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE X — Continued 
50 Scotch Men 



Head breadth 



Face breadth 



Differential 



Face-breadth 
head-breadth 
index 



millimeters 



150.5 
149.5 
150.0 
148.5 
156.5 
156.5 
144.5 
152.0 
147.5 
148.5 
141.5 
151.5 
152.5 
143.5 
150.5 
149.5 
143.0 
162.5 
154.0 
147.5 
158.0 
160.0 
160.0 
148.5 
154.5 
148.0 
154.5 
147.0 
160.5 
145.5 
154.5 
160.0 
155.0 
162.5 



millimeters 



135.5 
131.5 
136.0 
129.0 
135. 5 



139 
121 
140 
132 
135 
128 
138.5 
135.0 
133.0 
137 
141 
132 
146 
135 
134.0 
136.0 
145.0 



134.5 
129.5 
151.0 
131.5 
142.5 
125.5 
145.0 
130.0 
142.0 
138.5 
143.5 
147.5 



millimeters 



15.0 
18.0 
14.0 
19.5 
21.0 
17.0 
23. 0 
11.5 
15.5 
13.5 
13.0 
13.0 
17.5 
10.5 
13.0 

8.0 
10.5 
16.0 
18. 5 
13.5 
22.0 
15.0 
15. 5 
19.0 

3.5 
16.5 
12. 0 
21.5 
15.5 
15.5 
12.5 
21.5 
11.5 
15.0 



per cent 



90.03 
87.96 
90.66 
86.86 
86.58 
89.13 
84.08 
92.43 
89.83 
90.90 
90.81 
91.41 
88.52 
92.68 
91.36 
94.65 
92.66 
90.15 
87.33 
90.84 
86.07 
90.62 
84.06 
87.20 
97.73 
88.17 
92.23 
85.37 
90.34 
89.34 
91.90 
86.56 
92.58 
90.76 



Av ... .151.4 
M. Var.. 4.20 



136.8 
4.55 



14. 6 



90.34 
2.20 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



The different tales told by the face-breadth head-breadth index of 
the so-called pure-blood Ojibwa man and that of the French man and the 
Scotch man are so striking that it seems it may be possible to use this 
index as a valuable contributing factor in the solution of the problem of 
who is a pure-blood Indian and who is a mixed-blood Indian. As the 
fore-going tables show, the so-called pure-blood Indian has a face-breadth 
head-breadth index of 94.00 per cent or above, while the typical French 
man and Scotch man (the two peoples which have contributed most to the 
Ojibwa amalgamation) average below 91.00 per cent. 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



17 



FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH INDEX OF LAKE SUPERIOR MIXED- 
BLOOD INDIANS 

Tables xi, xn, xm, xiv contain measurements of known mixed- 
bloods, whose entire measurements proclaim their white blood. Several 
of those in tables xi and xn show nowhere any measureable evidence 
of their Indian blood. Their measurements are introduced here, however, 
solely to show their meaning as to face-breadth head-breadth index. 
With the exception of the average for the 4 three-fourths white women 
(table xn) the breadth index, not alone in averages but in individual cases, 
slips in between that of the so-called pure-blood Indian, and the French 
and Scotch. The individuals whose measurements are recorded in the 
four following tables are, with few exceptions I believe, amalgamated 
French-Indian, Scotch-Indian, and French-Scotch-Indian. 



TABLE XI 
8 Mixed-blood Indian Men 
Known to be three-fourths, or slightly over, white 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


150.0 


142.0 


8.0 


94.66 


155.0 


137.5 


17.5 


88.70 


150.0 


140.5 


9.5 


93.66 


159.5 


144.5 


15.5 


90.59 


153.5 


138.5 


15.0 


90.22 


157 5 


148.5 


9.0 


94.28 


154.5 


144.5 


10.0 


93.52 


159.0 


145.5 


13.5 


91.50 


Av 154.9 


142.7 


12.2 


92.14 


M. Var.. 2.87 


3.06 




1.88 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



TABLE XII 
4 Mixed-blood Indian Women 
Known to be three-fourths, or slightly over, white 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


152.0 


134.0 


18.0 


88.15 


151.5 


130.0 


21.5 


85.80 


152.0 


131.0 


21.0 


86.18 


145.0 


134.0 


11.0 


92.42 


Av 150. 1 


132.2 


17.8 


88.16 


M.Var.. 2.57 


1.75 




2.15 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



18 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE XIII 



12 Mixed-blood Indian Men 
Known to be one-half, or slightly over, white 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


156.0 


146.0 


10.0 


93.58 


156. 0 


142.5 


13. 5 


91.34 


156.5 


149.0 


7.5 


95.20 


154.5 


143.0 


12.5 


92.55 


162.0 


149.0 


13.0 


91.97 


156.5 


150.5 


6.0 


95.52 


158.0 


148.0 


10.0 


93.67 


162.0 


146.5 


15.5 


90.43 


158.0 


144.0 


14.0 


91.13 


152.5 


143.5 


9.0 


94.09 


149.0 


135.5 


13.5 


90.93 


159.0 


143.0 


16.0 


89.93 


Av 156.7 


145.0 


11.6 


92.52 


M. Var.. 2.61 


3.12 




1.57 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



TABLE XIV 



8 Mixed-blood Indian Women 
Known to be one-half, or slightly over, white 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


154.5 


135.5 


19.0 


87.72 


148.0 


132.0 


16.0 


89.19 


157.0 


141.0 


16.0 


89.87 


150.0 


134.0 


16.0 


89.33 


153.0 


138.0 


15.0 


90.19 


152.5 


141.0 


11.5 


92.45 


149.5 


143.5 


6.0 


95.98 


147.0 


140.0 


7.0 


95.23 


Av 151.4 


138.1 


13.3 


91.24 


M. Var.. 2.81 


3.25 




2.48 



Av.= Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



Tables xv and xvi contain, respectively, measurements of sixty men 
and seventy-four women who exhibit unquestioned factors of mixed 
ancestry besides the face-breadth head-breadth differential and index. 

The individuals are believed to range completely over the field from 
slightly less than half white to the practical vanishing point of the influence 



Plate D 




Photo by Jenks 



Figure 1 
Typical French-breed 
About one thirty-second white 




Photo by Jenks Photo by Jenks 



Figure 2 Figure 3 

Typical mixed-blood 
Probably about one-sixteenth white 

Head breadth - - - - 159.0 mm. 
Face breadth - - - - 152.5 mm. 
Face-breadth head-breadth index - 95.91 percent 



Plate E 




Photo by Jenks 



Figure 1 
Typical "half-breed" man, a 
half-breed" 



Pembina 



Head breadth .... 152.5 mm. 
Face breadth - - - - 143.5 mm. 
Face-breadth head-breadth index - 94 . 09 per cent 




Photo by Jenki 

Figure 2 

Typical "half-breed" man, a "Pembina 
half-breed" 

Head breadth - - - 149.0 mm. 
Face breadth - 135.5 mm. 

Face-breadth head-breadth index 90.93 per cent 





Photo by Jenks 

Figure 3 

Typical "half-breed" man, at least three-fourths white 



Head breadth 
Face breadth 

Face-breadth head-breadth 



index 



154.5 mm. 
144.5 mm. 
93.52 percent 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



19 



of white blood. There is a wide range of differential and index. For 
the men the differential ranges from +2.5 (where the face is 2.5 milli- 
meters wider than the head) to 17.5 (where the face is 17.5 millimeters 
narrower than the head). The range in index is therefore great, or from 
101.62 (which is ultra-Indian) to 88.44 per cent (which is sub-typical 
for French and Scotch men). There is also a wide range among the 
women, as from a differential of 2 . 5 to 22 . 5 ; the index range is from 98 . 34 
per cent to 85.14 per cent. Among the women, whether Indian, white, 10 
or mixed-blood, there is a lower face-breadth head-breadth index than 
among the men of the same group. 

TABLE XV 
60 Mixed-blood Indian Men 



Known as such by unquestioned factors besides differential and face-breadth head- 
breadth index; they are less than half white 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 
index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


159.0 


156.0 


3.0 


98.11 


156.0 


154.5 


1.5 


99.03 


161.5 


155.5 


6.0 


96.28 


153.5 


156.0 


+ 2.5 


101.62 


161.5 


159.5 


2.0 


98.76 


156.0 


142.5 


13.5 


91.34 


154.5 


148.5 


6.0 


96.11 


161.5 


158.5 


3.0 


98.14 


159.0 


152.5 


6.5 


95.91 


156.5 


151.5 


5.5 


96.48 


145.0 


145.0 


0.0 


100.00 


156.0 


146.0 


10.0 


93.58 


162.5 


156.5 


6.0 


96.30 


158.5 


153.0 


5.5 


96.53 


156.0 


152.5 


3.5 


97.75 


151.0 


143.5 


7.5 


95.03 


148.0 


135.0 


13.0 


91.21 


167.5 


155.5 


12.0 


92.83 


162.0 


156.0 


6.0 


96.29 


157.5 


143.5 


14.5 


90.97 


158.0 


145.0 


13.0 


91.77 


156.5 


149.0 


7.5 


95.20 


153.5 


150.0 


3.5 


97.78 


166.0 


152.0 


14.0 


91.56 


165.0 


156.0 


9.0 


94.54 


156.0 


149.5 


6.5 


95.84 


156.0 


145.0 


11.0 


92.94 


156.0 


146.0 


10.0 


93.58 


162.0 


150.0 


12.0 


92.59 


157.0 


144.0 


13.0 


92.16 


159.0 


145.5 


14.5 


91.50 



10 Measurements of white women (French and Scotch) have been made, but are not included in this 
preliminary paper. 



20 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE XV — Continued 
60 Mixed-blood Indian Men 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 








index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


160.0 


155.0 


5. 0 


96.87 


156.5 


140.0 


16. 5 


89.45 


148.5 


136.0 


12. 5 


91.58 


152.5 


142.0 


10. 5 


92. 78 


156.5 


151.0 


5. 5 


96.48 


154.5 


149.5 


5.0 


96. 76 


161.0 


151.0 


10. 0 


93.84 


160.0 


148.0 


12. 0 


92.50 


155.5 


142.0 


13. 5 


91.31 


160.0 


152.5 


7. 5 


95.31 


161.0 


155.5 


5. 5 


96.58 


157.0 


144.5 


12.5 


92.03 


167.5 


161.5 


6. 0 


96.42 


158.5 


154.0 


4.5 


97. 16 


158.5 


150.0 


8.5 


94.00 


156.5 


150.5 


6.0 


96. 16 


147.0 


141.0 


6.0 


95.91 


166. 0 


149. 0 


■1*7 A 

17.0 


89. 75 


153.5 


148.5 


5.0 


96.74 


147.0 


137.5 


9.5 


93.53 


156.0 


149.0 


7.0 


95.51 


159.5 


145.0 


14.5 


90.90 


149.5 


148.5 


1.0 


99.33 


153.5 


143.5 


10.0 


93.48 


151.5 


134.0 


17.5 


88.44 


152.5 


143.5 


9.0 


94.09 


154.5 


138.5 


16.0 


89.64 


152.5 


151.5 


1.0 


99.34 


151.5 


141.0 


10.5 


93.06 


Av 156.8 


148.4 


8.3 


94.68 


M.Var. . 3.72 


5.12 




2.50 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



21 



TABLE XVI 
74 Mixed-blood Indian Women 



Known as such by unquestioned factors besides differential and face-breadth head- 
breadth index; they are less than half white 











Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 










index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


162.0 


157. 


0 


5.0 


96.91 


163.0 


147. 


0 


16.0 


90. 18 


156.5 


147. 


0 


9.5 


94.56 


150.0 


138. 


0 


12.0 


92.00 


162.5 


144.0 


18.5 


88.61 


154.5 


135. 


5 


19.0 


87.77 


154.0 


146. 


0 


8.0 


94.80 


150.0 


137 


5 


12.5 


91.66 


147.0 


139 


0 


8.0 


94.55 


154.5 


148 


0 


6. 5 


95.85 


149.0 


133 


0 


16.0 


89.26 


153.0 


144 


5 


8.5 


94.44 


151.0 


148 


0 


3. 0 


98.01 


155.0 


145 


0 


10.0 


93.54 


150.0 


138 


0 


12.0 


92.00 


157.0 


141 


0 


16. 0 


89.80 


158.0 


142 


0 


16.0 


89.87 


159.0 


144 


0 


15.0 


90.56 


158.5 


153 


0 


5.5 


95.30 


149.0 


142 


0 


7.0 


96.48 


151.5 


145 


0 


6.5 


95. 70 


157.5 


143 


5 


13.5 


91.40 


168.5 


151 


0 


17.5 


89. 61 


156.0 


145 


0 


11.0 


92.94 


153.5 


139 


0 


14. 5 


90. 74 


151.5 


140.0 


11.5 


92. 49 


147.5 


140.0 


7. 5 


94. 23 


168.0 


153 


0 


15. 0 


91 . 07 


157.0 


143 


5 


13.5 


91.40 


156.0 


137 


0 


19. 0 


87.82 


150.0 


140 


0 


10. 0 


93. 33 


151.5 


129 


0 


22. 5 


85.14 


168.0 


152 


5 


16. 5 


90.77 


149.0 


138 


0 


11. 0 


92. 61 


159.0 


151 


0 


8. 0 


94.71 


162.0 


149 


0 


13. 0 


91.97 


150. U 


144 


.0 


6 0 


96.00 


149.5 


143.0 


6^5 


95.65 


151.5 


149 


.0 


2.5 


98.34 


152.0 


140.0 


12.0 


92.10 


150.5 


141 


.5 


9.0 


94.01 


150.0 


140.0 


10.0 


94.44 


147.5 


137 


.5 


10.0 


93.21 


149.0 


140.0 


9.0 


93.95 
95.88 


146.0 


140.0 


6.0 


150.0 


141 


.0 


9.0 


94.00 
87.47 
91.23 


152.5 


133.5 


21.0 


154.0 


141 


.5 


13.5 


160.0 


146 


.5 


15.5 


91.56 
93.75 
91.97 


152.0 


142 


.5 


9.5 


149.5 


137 


.5 


12.0 



22 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



TABLE XVI — Continued 
74 Mixed-blood Indian Women 









Face-breadth 


Head breadth 


Face breadth 


Differential 


head-breadth 
index 


millimeters 


millimeters 


millimeters 


per cent 


159.5 


143.0 


16.5 


89.65 


157.0 


142.5 


14.5 


90.76 


157.5 


145.5 


12.0 


92.38 


147.5 


137.5 


10. 0 


93.22 


141.5 


138.5 


3.0 


97.87 


151.0 


139.5 


11.5 


92.38 


147.5 


137.5 


10. 0 


93.22 


149.0 


145.0 


4.0 


97.31 


152.0 


144.5 


7.5 


98.36 


146.5 


133.5 


13.0 


91.12 


144.5 


135.5 


9.0 


93.77 


149. 0 


136. 0 


13. 0 


91. 27 


154.0 


141.0 


13.0 


91.55 


154.5 


142.5 


12.0 


92.23 


148.0 


137.0 


11.0 


92.56 


144.0 


138.0 


6.0 


95.83 


148.0 


134.0 


14.0 


90.55 


147.5 


132.0 


15.5 


89.49 


153.0 


142.0 


11.0 


92.81 


152.0 


139.0 


13.0 


91.44 


158.5 


142.0 


16.5 


89.58 


157.0 


142.0 


15.0 


90.44 


161.5 


143.0 


18.5 


86.68 


Av 153.3 


141.8 


11.4 


92.57 


M. Var.. 4.52 


4.06 




2.18 



Av.=Average; M. Var.=Mean variation. 



INDIAN-WHITE AMALGAMATION 



23 



CONCLUSION 



A summary of the average face-breadth head-breadth indexes for men 
and women in the different blood-status and ethnic groups may assist to 
make more clear the meaning of the typical index for each group as shown 
by the measurements recorded in the various preceding tables. 



RECAPITULATION OF 



TABLE XVII 
TYPICAL FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH 



INDEXES OF VARIOUS GROUPS 



Table 



III 

IV 
V 

VI 

VI 
VII, VIII 
XV, XVI 
XIII, XIV 

XI, XII 

IX 

X 



Group 



Indian, general, derived from Morton 
Algonquin, derived from Morton. . . . 
Indians of Southern Mexico, derived 

from Starr 

Apache, derived from Hrdlicka. . . 

Pima, derived from Hrdlicka 

Ojibwa, pure-bloods 

Mixed-bloods, less than half white 
Mixed-bloods, known to be half, or 

slightly over, white 

Mixed-bloods, known to be three 

quarters, or slightly over, white. . 

French 

Scotch 



Men 



94.90 
94.30 
98.63 
97.19 
94.68 

92.52 

92.14 
90.85 
90.34 



Women 



93.30 
90.96 
95.83 
96.05 
92.57 

91.24 

88.16 



Sex not 
designated 



95.49 
96.06 



The following plate, F (figures 1, 2, 3,), presents graphically the head 
breadth, face breadth, and face-breadth head-breadth index for each of 
the three hundred and fifty-nine adults considered in this study. The 
groups of people are arranged uniformly in each of the three graphs, but 
not according to the order of the preceding measurement tables. The 
groups appear in the order of decreasing Indian blood and increasingly 
white blood as arranged from the bottom of each graph to the French 
and Scotch males at the top, i.e., in the following order: — pure-blood 
Indian males, pure-blood Indian females, mixed-blood (less than half 
white) males, mixed-blood (less than half white) females, mixed-blood 
(half or more white) males, mixed-blood (half or more white) females, 
mixed-blood (three-fourths or more white) males, mixed-blood (three- 
fourths or more white) females, French males, Scotch males. 

In all three graphs the average is indicated by an arrow ( ♦ ) for the 
males, and an arrow head ( V) for the females. The heavy line represents 
the actual number of cases. In figures 1 and 2 the line shows the indis 
vidual cases at the intervals of 0. 5 millimeters exactly as the measurement- 
were made. In figure 3 intervals of 0.5 per cent are represented. The 
dotted line represents an increase of the interval from 0.5 millimeters to 



24 



ALBERT ERNEST JENKS 



1.0 millimeter in figures 1 and 2, and from 0.5 per cent to 1.0 per cent 
in figure 3 for the purpose of showing more clearly the probable general 
tendency of the group. This seemed desirable because the small number 
of cases in most of the groups made great irregularity in the heavy-line 
curve. 

The order of groups used allows one to see the value of the face-breadth 
head-breadth index (figure 3) as a contributing factor, among the other 
measurements taken, in determining the blood status of the so-called 
American Indians. The index of the males is greater than that of the 
females of the same group, but the gradual lessening of the index with 
the gradual increase of white blood in the individuals is shown by the 
movement of the averages, and of the frequency curves from right to left 
across the graph. Again the value of the face-breadth head-breadth 
index as a contributing factor in determining the blood status of "Indians" 
is seen, irrespective of sex, by comparing figures 2 and 3. In figure 3 
the lessening is continuous (except for the two small groups of 4 three- 
fourths white women, and of 8 three-fourths white men). Whereas, in 
figure 2 (showing face breadth), the lessening is broken in all groups by 
the fact of sex. The face-breadth head-breadth index is thus shown to 
be a more reliable factor than is face breadth for determining the blood- 
status of Indian-white mixed-bloods. 




H92 74 539 





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